The end of the Cold War in 1991 ushered in a period marked by U.S. dominance, the spread of democracy, and economic globalization. This “post-Cold War order” saw the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the rise of newly sovereign states in Eastern Europe, and the integration of former communist countries into the global economy. The United States emerged as the world’s sole superpower, and international cooperation increased, with major powers—such as the U.S., Europe, Russia, China, and Japan—seeking to preserve a status quo from which they benefited.

Key features of this era included a reduction in inter-state wars, the proliferation of peacekeeping operations, and the institutionalization of international norms and borders. The period was also characterized by growing globalization, technological change, and the rise of new global challenges like nuclear proliferation, climate change, and economic interdependence. However, beneath the surface, new threats emerged: ethnic conflicts, religious militancy, terrorism, and economic competition beyond the control of nation-states.

By the 2010s, the order began to fray. The rise of China, renewed assertiveness from Russia, and a series of global crises—including the war on terror, the Great Recession, and the Russo-Ukrainian War—challenged U.S. dominance and the liberal international order. The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 is widely seen as a turning point, marking the end of the post-Cold War order and the onset of a more fragmented, multipolar world. Today, the international system is shaped by renewed great power competition, hybrid warfare, and uncertainty about the future of global cooperation